Germany

Increased dependence on networked, software-based control has escalated the vulnerabilities of Cyber-Physical Systems (CPSs). Detection and monitoring components developed leveraging dynamical systems theory are often employed as lightweight security measures for protecting such safety-critical CPSs against false data injection attacks. However, existing approaches do not correlate attack scenarios with parameters of detection systems. In this work, we propose real-time attack detection and mitigation strategies for safety-critical CPSs. A Reinforcement Learning (RL) based framework is presented which adaptively sets the parameters of such detectors based on experience learned from attack scenarios. The detection system is provided with a suitable training environment to learn how to maximize the detection rate while minimizing false alarms. Along with the objective of attack detection, our framework also attempts to preserve system performance by judiciously choosing control actions based on the operating region. Our proposed method i) mathematically establishes a detection strategy for fast and accurate FDI attack detection, ii) correlates the key parameters of the detection system by learning from attack scenarios, and iii) incorporates a real-time attack mitigation strategy that uses formally synthesized fast controllers, thus creating an end-to-end defense against FDI attacks for safety-critical CPSs. We evaluate our proposed method using well-known safety-critical CPS examples.

IEEE RTSS 2021

Catch Me If You Learn: Real-Time Attack Detection and Mitigation in Learning Enabled CPS

process control

system performance

upper bound

training

safety

formal methods

real time recovery

adaptive threshold

security

cyber-physical systems

real-time systems

reinforcement learning

The Conference on Uncertainty in Artificial Intelligence (UAI) is one of the premier international conferences on research related to knowledge representation, learning, and reasoning in the presence of uncertainty. It is supported by the [Association for Uncertainty in Artificial Intelligence (AUAI).](https://www.auai.org/)

The 37th Conference on Uncertainty in Artificial Intelligence (UAI 2021) is held fully online. We have an exciting program consisting of keynote talks by [Susan Murphy](https://www.auai.org/uai2021/program?block=A), [Eric Horvitz](https://www.auai.org/uai2021/program?block=B), [Lenka Zdeborová](https://www.auai.org/uai2021/program?block=C), [Judea Pearl](https://www.auai.org/uai2021/program?block=D) and [Ankur Moitra](https://www.auai.org/uai2021/program?block=E), a town hall meeting, peer-reviewed papers, and three workshops. The main conference is single-track and each paper is show-cased with a live component (either a live discussion and Q&A, or a live lightning talk). All papers are also featured in video presentations and in poster sessions in gather.town. The three parallel workshops on Friday allow for smaller meetings on current topics.

The walkthrough video below shows how you can navigate this site and use the different possibilities for interaction: UAIsland2021 on gather.town for posters and social interactions, the mementor platform for virtual mentoring sessions, and the chat and Q&A systems for discussions about talks and posters.

Have a great UAI 2021! 
<br>
<br>Cassio de Campos and Marloes Maathuis
<br>UAI 2021 Program Chairs
<br>uai2021programchairs@gmail.com

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UAI 2021

The Conference on Uncertainty in Artificial Intelligence (UAI) is one of the premier international conferences on research related to knowledge representation, learning, and reasoning in the presence of uncertainty. It is supported by the [Association for Uncertainty in Artificial Intelligence (AUAI).](https://www.auai.org/)

technical paper

 **RTSS 2021** has successfully concluded. Hope you have enjoyed it, and look forward to seeing you next year in person.
    Announcement for the Awards:
 * Best Paper Award goes to: Monte Carlo Response-Time Analysis, Sergey Bozhko, Georg von der Brüggen, and Björn Brandenburg
 * Best Student Paper Award goes to: Automatic Energy-Hotspot Detection and Elimination in Real-Time Deeply Embedded Systems, Mohsen Shekarisaz, Lothar Thiele, and Mehdi Kargahi.
 * Best Solution Award for Industry Session goes to: Toward Real-Time Guaranteed Scheduling for Autonomous Driving Systems. Jinghao Sun, Tianyi Wang, Kailu Duan, Bin Lu, Jiankang Ren, Zhishan Guo, and Guozhen Tan.



The IEEE Real-Time Systems Symposium (RTSS) is the premier conference in the field of real-time systems, and is a venue for researchers and practitioners to showcase innovations covering all aspects of real-time systems, including theory, design, analysis, implementation, evaluation, and experience. 

Time synchronization of devices in Internet-of- Things (IoT) networks is one of the challenging problems and a pre-requisite for the design of low-latency applications. Although many existing solutions have tried to address this problem, almost all solutions assume all the devices (nodes) in the network are faultless. Furthermore, these solutions exchange a large number of messages to achieve synchronization, leading to significant communication and energy overhead. To address these shortcomings, we propose C-sync, a clustering-based decentralized time synchronization protocol that provides resilience against several types of faults with energy-efficient communication. Csync achieves scalability by introducing multiple reference nodes in the network that restrict the maximum number of hops any node can have to its time source. The protocol is designed with a modular structure on the Contiki platform to allow application transitions. We evaluate C-sync on a real testbed that comprises over 40 Tmote Sky hardware nodes distributed across different levels in a building and show through experiments the fault resilience, energy efficiency, and scalability of the protocol. Csync detects and isolates faults to a cluster and recovers quickly. The evaluation makes a qualitative comparison with state-ofthe- art protocols and a quantitative comparison with a class of decentralized protocols (derived from GTSP) that provide synchronization with no/limited fault-tolerance. Results also show a reduction of 56.12% and 75.75% in power consumption in the worst-case and best-case scenarios, respectively, compared to GTSP, while achieving similar accuracy.

Cluster-based Network Time Synchronization for Resilience with Energy Efficiency

We present a middleware-based protocol that reliably synchronizes large samples consisting of multiple frames efficiently and within application level QoS requirements over a lossy wireless channel. The protocol uses a custom retransmission scheme, exploiting the latency requirements on sample level for frame level scheduling. It can be integrated into the popular DDS middleware. We investigate some technical limits of such a protocol and compare it to existing error protocols in the software stack and in the wireless protocol and combinations thereof. The comparison is based on an Omnet++ simulation using an established wireless channel error model. For evaluation, we take a use case from automated valet parking where infrastructure data provided via a wireless link augments in-vehicle sensor data. The use case respects the related safety requirements. Results show that the application awareness of the presented protocol, significantly improves service availability by transmitting data efficiently in time even under higher frame error rates.

A middleware protocol for time-critical wireless communication of large data samples

The Clock Constraint Specification Language (CCSL) has become popular for modeling and analyzing timing behaviors of real-time embedded systems. However, it is dicult for requirement engineers to accurately figure out CCSL specifications from natural language-based requirement descriptions. This is mainly because: i) most requirement engineers lack expertise in formal modeling; and ii) few existing tools can be used to facilitate the generation of CCSL specifications. To address these issues, this paper presents a novel approach that combines the merits of both Reinforcement Learning (RL) and deductive techniques in logical reasoning for ecient co-synthesis of CCSL specifications. Specifically, our method leverages RL to enumerate all the feasible solutions to fill the holes of incomplete specifications and deductive techniques to judge the quality of each trial. Our proposed deductive mechanisms are useful for not only pruning enumeration space, but also guiding the enumeration process to reach an optimal solution quickly. Comprehensive experimental results on both well-known benchmarks and complex industrial examples demonstrate the performance and scalability of our method. Compared with the state-of-theart, our approach can drastically reduce the synthesis time by several orders of magnitude while the accuracy of synthesis can be guaranteed.

Enumeration and Deduction Driven Co-Synthesis of CCSL Specifications Using Reinforcement Learning

In this paper we present a new scheduling model for resilient real-time mixed trust systems. This model extends the previous Real-Time Mixed-Trust Computing framework RT-MTC to support degradation modes. Management of these modes has been identified in industrial documents as a key requirement for deploying trusted autonomous vehicles for safe autonomy. RT-MTC uses verified components (known as enforcers) to guarantee that the output of a system is safe by replacing it with a verified safe one if this output is deemed unsafe or is not produced on time. In this paper we extend RT-MTC and develop a scheduling model that uses the digraph scheduling model as a baseline but extends it in four critical ways: (1) it creates extensions for the mixed-preemptive scheduling required by RT-MTC, (2) it enables priority bands in order to separate trusted and untrusted components, (3) it uses these bands in order to calculate intermediate deadlines used by the RT-MTC framework for the scheduling of the trusted components, and (4) it defines system mode semantics to obtain two desirable properties of the new schedulability analysis: low pessimism and low time-complexity. This paper evaluates the new schedulability algorithm and shows that it is efficient in that it only needs to analyze one transition at a time. The new model supports the construction of a resilient autonomous system with provable guarantees protected by verified enforcers within the RT-MTC framework and, more importantly, preserves these guarantees even across failure-triggered mode changes.

Resilient Mixed-Trust Scheduling

Federated scheduling is a promising approach to schedule parallel real-time tasks, where each task exclusively executes on a set of dedicated processors. However, federated scheduling suffers significant resource wasting since a task typically only uses part of the processing capacity allocated to it, while the unused part cannot be shared with other tasks. To solve this problem, we present a virtually-federated scheduling approach, which both enjoys the good analyzability of federated scheduling and allows tasks to efficiently share processors with others. The main idea is to construct virtual processors on physical processors, and let a task exclusively execute on a set of virtual processors. As a physical processor is shared by virtual processors, tasks effectively share processors with each other. On the other hand, as each task exclusively executes on its own virtual processor set, the good analyzability of federated scheduling can be carried into to our virtually-federated scheduling approach. We conduct comprehensive performance evaluation to compare our proposed approach with existing methods of different types. Experiment results show that our approach consistently outperforms existing methods to a considerable extent under a wide range of parameter settings.

Virtually-Federated Scheduling of Parallel Real-Time Tasks

OpenMP is a promising framework for developing parallel real-time software on multi-cores. Recently, many graphbased task models representing realistic features of OpenMP task systems have been proposed and analyzed. However, all previous studies did not model the loop structures, which is common in OpenMP task systems. In this paper, we formulate the workload of OpenMP task systems with loop structures as the cyclic graph model and study how to compute safe upper bounds for the worstcase response time (WCRT). The loop structures combined with the creation of tasks and conditional branches result in a large state space. Simply unrolling the loop and/or enumerating all the possible execution flows would be computationally intractable. As the major technical contribution, we develop a linear-time dynamic programming algorithm to compute the WCRT bound without unrolling loops or explicitly enumerating the execution flows. Experiments with both synthetic task graphs and realistic OpenMP programs are conducted to evaluate the performance of our method.

Calculating Worst-Case Response Time Bounds for OpenMP Programs with Loop Structures

Real-time deep learning inference serving systems often require prohibitive resources and diverse user requirements. The existing design of inference serving systems mainly focusing on computation resource efficiency, largely ignoring the trade-off between computation and bandwidth resources in need. Sub-optimal resource utilization usually leads to huge serving cost waste. In this paper, we tackle the dual challenge of computation bandwidth trade-off and cost-effectiveness by proposing A2, an efficient joint Adaptive model, and Adaptive data deep learning serving solution across the geo-datacenters. Inspired by the insight that a trade-off between computational cost and bandwidth cost in achieving the same accuracy, we design a real-time inference serving framework, which selectively places different “versions” of the deep learning models at different geolocations, and schedules different data sample versions to be sent to those model versions for inference. The goal is to minimize the total serving cost while meeting latency and accuracy demand for the serving requests. We formulate a joint placement and serving problem and propose an efficient approximation algorithm to solve it with a theoretical performance guarantee. We deploy A2 on Amazon EC2 for experiments, which shows that A2 achieves 30%-50% serving cost reduction under the same required latency and accuracy as compared to baselines.

Joint Model and Data Adaptation for Cloud Inference Serving

Ensuring real-time properties on current heterogeneous multiprocessor systems on a chip is a challenging task. Furthermore, online artificial intelligent applications –which are routinely deployed on such chips– pose increasing pressure on the memory subsystem that becomes a source of unpredictability. Although techniques have been proposed to restore independent access to memory for concurrently executing virtual machines (VM), providing predictable inter-VM communication remains challenging. In this work, we tackle the problem of predictably transferring data between virtual machines and virtualized hardware resources on multiprocessor systems on chips under consideration of memory interference. We design a “broker-based” real-time communication framework for otherwise isolated virtual machines, provide a virtio-based reference implementation on top of the Jailhouse hypervisor, assess its overheads for FreeRTOS virtual machines, and formally analyze its communication flow schedulability under consideration of the implementation overheads. Furthermore, we define a methodology to assess the maximum DRAM memory saturation empirically, evaluate the framework’s performance and compare it with the theoretical schedulability.

A Real-Time virtio-based Framework for Predictable Inter-VM Communication

Instant delivery has developed rapidly in recent years and significantly changed the lifestyle of people due to its timeliness and convenience. In instant delivery, the order dispatch process is concurrent. Couriers take new orders continuously and deliver multiple orders in a delivery trip (i.e., a batch). The delivery time of orders in a batch is often overlapped and interlinked with each other. The pickup and delivery sequence of the existing orders in a batch changes dynamically due to time constraints and real-time overdue possibility (i.e., the rate of deliveries that are not finished in promised time). Most of existing order dispatch mechanisms are designed for independent order dispatch or concurrent delivery without strict time constraints, hence are incapable of handling real-time concurrent dispatch with strict time constraints in on-demand instant delivery. To address the challenge, we propose a Time-Constrained Actor- Critic Reinforcement learning based concurrent dispatch system called TCAC-Dispatch to enhance the long-term overall revenue and reduce the overdue rate. Specifically, we design a deep matching network (DMN) with a variable action space, which integrates the state embedding (including route behaviors encod- ing) and actions embedding features into a long-term matching value. Then the Actor-Critic model tackles the concurrent order dispatch problem considering strict time constraints and stochas- tic demand-supply in instant delivery. An estimated time-based action pruning module is designed to ensure time constraints guarantee and accelerate the training as well as dispatching processes. We evaluate the TCAC-Dispatch with one-month data involved with 36.48 million orders and 42,000 couriers collected from one of the largest instant delivery companies in China, i.e., Eleme. Empirical experiments are conducted on a data-driven emulator deployed on the development environment of Eleme and results show that our method achieves 22% of the increase in total revenue and reduces the overdue rate by 21.6%.

Concurrent Order Dispatch for Instant Delivery with Time-Constrained Actor-Critic Reinforcement Learning

Mobile devices have been increasingly deployed in large-scale cyber-physical systems (CPS) to traverse the field and retrieve data measurements from designated physical entities with stringent performance requirements. This work studies the availability-constrained real-time data retrieval problem in CPS with a speed adjustable mobile device (AFDR-SA). The goal is to maintain the temporal validity of the real-time data to be retrieved in the system while meeting the data availability constraints imposed by the communication range between the mobile device and the physical entities. A dynamic programming (DP)-based optimal algorithm is proposed for a special but commonly presented scenario where the retrieval times of individual data items are of the same length. Based on this optimal algorithm, an effective heuristic method is further developed for the general case where data items can have arbitrary retrieval times. The effectiveness of the proposed methods are validated through extensive experiments. Our results demonstrate the optimality of the DP-based algorithm, and show that the heuristic method outperforms the state-of-the-art schemes and performs close to the optimal solution obtained by the exhaustive search with much less computational overhead.

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